Given the universality of religious experience, we can assume that homo sapiens has evolved something like a vague religious instinct. Even people who do not believe in deities of any kind are often superstitious or have a spiritual feeling of oneness with the universe. One interesting finding of positive psychology was that religious people tend to be happier and experience fewer mental health problems like depression and anxiety:
Some studies have examined the relationships between religiosity and specific anxiety disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Contrary to the views of Freud, who saw religion as a form of universal obsessional neurosis, the empirical evidence suggests that religion is associated with higher levels of obsessional personality traits but not with higher levels of obsessional symptoms. Religion may encourage people to be scrupulous, but not to an obsessional extent. (source)
The kind of religiosity that is presented here is traditional religiosity which has a strong correlation with the personality trait “conscientiousness”. Basically, this view of religiosity is in stark contrast to what we see in the founders of religions and religious visionaries. There is a strong connection to psychoticism in those people. The Axial Age that followed state formation and consolidation after the turbulent Bronze Age produced prophets everywhere in Eurasian societies. The prophets themselves can be seen as a continuation of hunter-gatherer shamanism. In fact, Jesus is the most famous example of being a healer apart from being a religious leader. Although only 25 prophets are mentioned in the Qur'an, the Axial Age probably produced thousands of prophets, many of whom were probably vital in the process of state legislation and consolidation (think of the influence Rasputin had on the Russian czar Nicolas II).
The dark side of being a prophet was that many of them probably suffered from serious mental health issues ranging from depression to schizotypy and the psychosis spectrum. Shamans become shamans in their late teens to early 20s, about the same age range that schizophrenia is typically diagnosed (17-25). Both may go hand in hand with a perceived low reproductive potential. However, whereas shamans are venerated and may, people with psychosis have significantly lower chances of having offspring. Biologically, psychosis may represent a switch to a fast-life history strategy and is often accompanied by high sociosexuality. One more time I would like to remind you of Rasputin, who had a great reputation as a womanizer.
Hearing voices, getting tasked with a mission by God (not only prophets but also Joan of Arc and others), wouldn’t be considered healthy signs nowadays:
A man in his late 20s with paranoid schizophrenia explained during a neurological evaluation that he could read minds and that for years he had heard voices revealing things about friends and strangers alike. He believed he was selected by God to provide guidance for mankind. Antipsychotic medications prescribed by his psychiatrists diminished these abilities and reduced the voices, and therefore he would not take them. He asked, “How do you know the voices aren’t real?” “How do you know I am not The Messiah?” He affirmed, “God and angels talked to people in the Bible.” (source)
Psychoticism itself shows a significant correlation with the personality trait “openness to experience” (O). High O religiosity is often linked to spirituality and mysticism of the “oneness with the universe” type. High C religiosity is linked to adherence to traditional beliefs. I have argued before that these traits are derived from our ancestral modes of subsistence:
Foragers nowadays are bereft of their traditional way of life. We see high rates of substance use and addictions among foragers everywhere around the world. While traditional C religiosity is correlated with a low risk for substance, high O spirituality should be correlated with a higher risk for substance use and addiction. Rasputin, who likely had a high Siberian hunter-gatherer gene admixture, was known for his love of wine. In mediaeval times, monasteries were famous for producing wine and beer.
Here are some forms of religious experience that can easily be related to mental health problems:
Apparitions - psychotic hallucinations (e.g. Saint Paul)
Self-harm - low self-esteem and depression (e.g. Ignatius of Loyola)
Asceticism - eating disorders (e.g. the Buddha, Francis of Assisi)
Visions - migraines (e.g. Hildegard von Bingen)
Substance use - self-medication (e.g. Rasputin)
All of these symptoms are more common among neurodiverse people (ASD, ADHD, etc.) than in neurotypicals. Autism appears to be closely linked to headaches. People with autism have more brain-related health problems, such as headaches and epilepsy, than typical people do, according to a survey of twins. ASD also has strong links to food allergies and eating disorders. ADHD is linked to substance use. Both are linked to low self-esteem and self-harm.
On the basis of common comorbidities and Bernard Crespi’s psychosis-autism model (source) I have developed this risk model for hunter-gatherer types:
The vast majority of prophets and religious founders should be of the gatherer or “shamanistic” profile with a high risk for psychotic spectrum disorders. The mental illnesses that are most strongly associated with migraines are major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder, both of which Crespi considers to be part of the psychosis spectrum.
All this is not meant to say that humanity has fallen for psychotic imposters again and again in history. On the contrary, I have argued for the importance of such religious leaders in the positive development of human history. Preaching non-violence and compassion are only the obvious side of the story. There are many more hidden benefits religious founders have brought: unifying nations and even making them rich. AS Joseph Henrich argues in The WEIRDest People in the World: How the West Became Psychologically Peculiar and Particularly Prosperous (2020) early Christianity eventually lead to European dominance by breaking up kinship ties and endogamy and by making Europeans more like hunter-gatherers.
Read more about that in my new book:
https://www.amazon.com/dp/B09RGMCQ4C
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